CIVICS FORM TWO

TOPIC ONE

LIFE SKILLS

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

A problem is something that is difficult to deal with or to understand. Social problems are difficulties that affect a community. Examples of social problems are violence, conflict, poverty, corruption, poor housing, drug abuse, HIV and AIDS, inadequate health care, theft and robbery, inadequate clean and safe water.

Promotion of life skills refers to the deliberate efforts which encourage and cultivate social values, knowledge and ability to individuals in solving problems. This helps them to control themselves in acceptable manner in different circumstances.

Social problem solving techniques

 Problem Solving Techniques is defined as the ways which people use to solve different problems encountered in societies. Or are the ways that a person or community deals with a difficult situation.

There are several ways by which problems are solved. Some of the techniques that are usually employed in to solve problems are; Cooperative technique, guidance and counseling, working hard, seeking advice from individual person and reading books.

1.      Cooperative technique is the way of problem solving whereby a person who has a problem exposes it to other people so that they can contribute their ideas which eventually solve the problem. Collective problem solving is more effective than tackling the problem individually.

2.      Guidance and counseling there are problems which cannot be solved physically or mechanically. Instead, they need psychological treatment. The counseling technique is applied to people who have mental or emotional sufferings. In the counseling technique, the problem is not actually solved. What is done in counseling is simply the provision of psychological relief. Through guidance and counseling, one is given ways of solving his/her problem or coping with the problem.

3.      Working hard it is appropriate method to the problems that are caused by laziness. Working hard has proved to be one of the means by which success is achieved. It is advisable that, hard work should be employed in both mental and physical activities.

4.      Seeking advice from individual persons this is a technique which has been employed by many people for years in problem solving. Experience shows that, many people pay visit to other people in search for advice to solve their problems. In most cases, people consulted are those who are considered to be wise.

5.      Reading books some books tell us something about life skills. Such books give different suggestions on how to solve problems.

Steps in the problem-solving process

Solving a problem is usually done in stages, one step at a time. These steps make up the problem-solving process. The steps are;

     Initiating mediation. Mediation is the process of trying to end a disagreement between people or groups by talking to them and helping them find a suitable solution for all those involved. For example, both your class and the form one class want to use the playground at the same time. You decide to report to your sports teacher so as to solve the problem. This is an example of initiating mediation. In this case, the sports teacher is the mediator.

     Gathering information. At this stage, the mediator tries to find the root cause of the problem. It is important to collect data about the existing problem in order to understand what actually causes the problem. Information is gathered by using several methods which are determined by the nature of the problem to be solved. Among the methods employed in information gathering are observation, questionnaire, interview, reading different books and other materials related to the problem, mass media by means of audio and other audio-visual materials and scientific experiments.

      Defining the problem. This is the stage at which the disagreement is explained. Sometimes we face difficulties in problem-solving because we start to solve the problem before we know what problem we are solving. In our example the problem may be defined as the form one and form two classes want to use the playground at the same time because of an error in the time table.

      Generating alternatives. This is the stage of coming up with solutions to the problem. In our example the solution can be: a) change the time table so that the form one classes uses the playground at a different time. b) Change the time table so that the form two classes uses the playground at another time. c) Have the two classes share the playground.  

     Agreeing to a solution. In order for the solutions suggested to be effective, there should be agreements. These agreements can involve what to do in order to avoid the reoccurrence of the problem.

     Following through to see that the plan is carried out. This is the stage where the solutions is implemented and tested to see if it works. E.g. are the students sharing the playground peacefully? Or after the time table was adjusted, have been similar problem?

The importance of applying problem – solving techniques

     Bring peace by resolving conflicts between members of the community.

     Rise the living standard of the society, e. g by improving housing and health services

     Ensure that all member of the community are treated fairly.

     Put a stop to vices such as drug abuse, child labour and prostitution.

     Protect the environment.

TOPIC 2: GOVERNMENT

MEANING AND TYPES OF GOVERNMENT
Government refers to a group of people who are responsible for controlling a country or state. The government manages relations between the people and their constitution or organizations.

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

The criteria used to categorize governments are based on how a given government has acquired its position, means of forming the government and power distribution among among the three organ of the state.
The most appropriate way of categorizing government should be based how government leaders get into power. This directly concerns the election process and violent process used in acquiring governing power. 
There are two types of government namely, democratic government and non- democratic government.
1. DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
Is the form of government whose political power is determined by popular votes. This type of government takes into consideration the consent of people in decision making. that means it acquires its legitimacy from people through free and fair elections. A good example of democratic government is government of Tanzania.
2. NON-DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
Is a form of government which normally does not come to power by popular election. It is the government which gets power without the majority will and people's legitimacy. In most cases a non democratic government results from coup d'e`tat; manipulation of election process or changing a democratic government into dictatorship after the leader has attained power through elections. In this kind of government, only one person or small group of people rule.

 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

1. Republic. This is a form of government in which a country is governed by a president and other politicians who are elected by the people.

2. Union
A union is a government formed by two or more countries that unite to form a single state. For example the united republic of Tanzania was formed when Tanganyika united with Zanzibar. The United Kingdom is the Union of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. 

3.    Monarchy
A monarchy is a system of government whereby a country is ruled by a king or a queen, who hold their power by inheritance. Monarchies are found in Swaziland, Morocco, , the United kingdom and Netherlands.

There are two types of monarchy. These are;
(a)     Absolute monarchy: where a king or queen is the head of state and government. They form the government, for example in Swaziland.
(b)     Constitutional monarchy: where the king or queen is only the head of state, and the prime minister is the head of government. The prime minister is elected by citizens in general election and he or she forms a government. Examples of countries that have constitutional monarchies are Sweden, Japan, Jordan and Netherlands.

4. Federation
In a federation, power is shared between a national government and state government. Member states have control over their own affairs but the central government controls national affairs. For example, the Russian Federation, Nigeria and the USA.

5. Dictatorship
Dictatorship is a form of government whereby leadership rests in the hands of an individual or a group of persons who normally come into power through the use of force. Dictators have unlimited authority over the people.

IMPORTANCE OF GOVERNMENT
(a)  The government provides citizens with social services like health care, education, safe water, etc.
(b)  It constructs and maintains infrastructure, e.g. roads, schools, buildings, hospitals, etc.
(c)  It maintains peace and order in the country. It provides security for citizens and their properties through the police and army.
(d)  It initiates and maintains relationships with other countries. For example it can establish ambassadorial relationships with some countries. The government also joins inter regional and international organizations to establish economic as well as diplomatic relations.
(e)  The government collects revenues for the development of the country. Citizens pay taxes to the government, which in turn, provides social services using the money collected.
(f)    It guides the country by preparing and implementing policies.
(g)  It protects individual rights of its citizens.
(h)  It protects the constitution and manages affairs directed by the constitution.

THE CONSTITUTION
Constitution refers to a system of laws and basic principles that a country or an organization is governed by. A national constitution is a document that bears the basic guides of a country. This means the people will be governed by a government on the basis of the provisions of the constitution.

The constitution provides the framework of the country and creates the principle organs of the state as well as its power and limitations.

The current constitution is divided into ten chapters.

Chapter 1: This chapter has three parts: (1) The United Republic of Tanzania (2) Fundamental objectives and directive principles of state policy. (3) Basic rights and duties of citizens.
Chapter 2: This chapter deals with the three basic leadership posts of the government: (1) The President (2) The Vice President (3) The Prime Minister.
Chapter 3: This deals with the parliament and its structure.
Chapter 4: This concerns the revolutionary Government of Zanzibar, The Zanzibar revolutionary Council, and The Zanzibar House of representatives.
Chapter 5: This deal with the Judiciary
Chapter 6: This deals with The Permanent Commission of Enquiry and the Public leader’s ethics secretariat.
Chapter 7: This deals with matter of finance and revenue, funds and expenditure.
Chapter 8: This deals with the establishment and functions of local government authorities such as municipal and county councils.
Chapter 9: This contains provisions on armed forces (army, navy and air force)
Chapter 10: This contains miscellaneous provisions.

       
MAKING THE CONSTITUTION
The Tanzanian constitution has not always been as it is currently. It has undergone several major changes since the first one was written in 1961.

Constitutional changes are determined by a number of factors. The following are some of the factors that can lead to constitutional changes.

1.       Changes in major policies.
2.       Changes in leadership.
3.       Changes in philosophy.
4.       Social development.
5.       Global changes.
6.       Supposed discrepancies.
7.       Pressure from the opposition side.
8.       Adaptation of new ideas.
9.       Revolution.
10.    Individual wishes or ideas.

The Tanzanian constitution has had a number of versions.

1. The Independence Constitution of 1961
Tanganyika got her independence from Britain in 1961. The British wrote the constitution which was used when Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere was the Prime Minister. The constitution was known as the Independence Constitution of 1961.

2. The republic Constitution of 1962
In 1962, the government of Tanganyika published a white paper proposing to make the country a public. The National Assembly discussed the paper and adopted it. The National Assembly then passed the Act of Parliament to give it a legal right to be a Constituent Assembly. This Constituent Assembly discussed and adopted a new constitution and Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere was elected the first president of the Republic of Tanganyika. This constitution was known as the Republic Constitution of 1962.

3. The Interim Constitution of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar of 1964
After the union of Tanganyika and Zanzibar there was a need to change the constitution. So the President of Tanzania issued an interim constitutional decree which modified the Constitution of the Republic of Tanganyika. The new constitution was the Interim Constitution of the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar of 1964.

4.The Interim Constitution of Tanzania of 1965
In 1965, the Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania enacted an Act of Parliament to make the Interim Constitution of Tanzania. This constitution declared Tanzania a single party state. Tanganyika African national Union (TANU) of Tanzania mainland and Afro-Shirazi Party (ASP) of Zanzibar were the only political parties recognized by the constitution. This constitution was the starting point in uniting TANU and ASP so that Tanzania could become a real one-party state. This constitution was known as the Interim Constitution of Tanzania of 1965.

 5. The Constitution of the United republic of Tanzania of 1977
In 1977 TANU and ASP united to form Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM). This union created the need for a new constitution. The then President of Tanzania Mwalimu J. K. Nyerere appointed a Constitutional Commission of twenty people to oversee the making of a new constitution. Each side of the union was represented by ten members.

President Nyerere appointed the representatives of the Constituent Assembly to consider the proposal of the Constitutional Commission to enact the constitution. The members of the Constituent assembly were 45 from Zanzibar and 156 from Tanzania mainland. They discussed and agreed on the constitutional proposals made by the Constitutional Commission, then the current constitution was adopted. The constituent is known as the Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania of 1977.

CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENTS
Constitutional amendment is the process of changing some sections of the constitution to adjust some ruling of the constitution caused by some discrepancies or needs of the nation.

The 1977 constitution has had a number of amendments to cater for the changing needs of the society. The major amendments include:

1. the introduction of the Bill of Rights in the constitution in 1984.
2. The introduction of the multi-party system in Tanzania in 1992.
3. The introduction of the vice-President as the running mate in elections, and making the president of Zanzibar a member of the Union Cabinet, in 1995. The other major changes here were:
(a)  Changing the mode of electing the president. Previously the President was elected by majority vote. The amendment allowed the President to be elected by the highest votes.
(b)  Increasing the number of seats allocated to women in the parliament to thirty percent.
(c)  Establishment of the independence of the judiciary and its powers on legal matters.
(d)  Establishment of the Commission of Human Rights and Good Governance.

TOPIC 3: LOCAL GOVERNMENT

MEANING OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Local government is the system of self-governance over seen by democratically elected body of councilors. This government is found at the grass root level and maintains peace at local areas.

Or

Local government is the government which is formed at the grass root level in order to assist the central government in matters of administration and other activities. Local government means, local authority that has power and authority over a village, ward, district, city, municipal or urban area. The local government authorities were established in 1982.

REASON FOR ESTABLISHMENT OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

1.      To give more power to the people in the localities.

2.      To widen the system of democratic leadership.

STRUCTURE OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Local government in Tanzania was established everywhere for the purpose of putting close government services to the people. As it is known that, whenever people form a group or a community; there must be leadership so as to make people act in the same way.

There are two categories of local government authorities; these are rural authorities, which are also known as district councils, and urban authorities.

The district councils range from the village level to the district level where urban authorities are responsible for the administration and development of township, municipalities and cities.

Local government has got authorities which are district authorities and urban authorities.

District authorities is divided into village government, ward government and district councils where urban authorities is made up of  town councils, municipal councils  and city councils.

The village government

The village government is the smallest unit of the local government. It is formed by 250 households.

Structure of village government

Village government is made up of village assembly, village council and village committees.

a)      Village assembly

It is composed of the entire adult population living in the village. The head of the assembly is the village chairperson who is elected by the village assembly. Functions of village assembly are;

     Adopting by-laws of the village.

     Electing the village chairperson.

     Electing the village council.

b)      The village council

It is composed of twenty five members elected by village assembly. The village council is the executive arm of the village assembly. It performs the day to day governance activities of the village under the supervision of the Village Executive Officer (VEO) who is appointed by the district council. Functions of village council are;

     Planning and coordinating village activities.

     Giving assistance and advising the villagers on developmental matters like agriculture and industry.

     Encouraging village residents to undertake and participate in communal enterprises.

     Proposing by-laws for the village.

c)      The village committees

The village government has standing committees which deal with different economic and social welfares for village development. These committees can be analyzed as follows;

                 I.          Finance and economic planning.

               II.          Defense and security.

              III.          Social services and self-reliance.

There are about 8000 registered villages scattered over Tanzania mainland.

The ward government

The structure of ward government is divided into three main parts which are the ward development committee, ward executive officer, and department which include several departments.

a)      The ward development committee

This is the highest organ in the ward. It is composed of:

       I.          The chairperson, who is the ward councilor. The ward councilor is elected by the people who live in that ward. He or she runs the office for a period of five years, and may be reelected. The councilor represents the ward in the district council.

     II.          Chairpersons of all village council within the ward.

    III.          The members of all the district council who live in that ward.

    IV.          Civic groups involved in the promotion of development in the ward, for example, non-governmental organization( NGOs)

Some of the roles and functions of the ward development committee include:

     Developing general plans for the ward.

     Managing disasters and other environment- related activities within the ward.

     Reviewing the proposals for the village councils’ projects and passing them on for further approval at the district level.

5 Democracies

Meaning and principles of democracy

Democracy is the system of government in which all people of a country can vote to elect their representatives. In a democracy, the government receives   its power from the mandate of its citizens. The citizens agree to be ruled by the government because this is the practical and convenient way of running the country for the good of all.

Basic principles of democratic governments

1.      Citizen participation

Citizen participation means the involvement of citizens of the country in different affairs, including:-

a)      Voting in elections

b)      Becoming informed about community or civic meetings.

c)      Being members of private  voluntary  organizations

d)      Paying taxes

e)      Reading about public  issues

f)       Discussing public issues

g)      Working in campaigns

h)      Contributing  to political parties

i)        Circulating  and signing petitions 

2.      Equality

Democracy values  all individuals equally .This means that  people have equal opportunities and may not be discriminated  against because of  their  race ,  religion,  ethnic group or gender .Democracy allows an individual  or groups the  right to have  different cultures, personalities , languages and beliefs.

3.      Political tolerance

Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that while the minorities of the people rules, the rights of the majority are protected. People  who  are not in  power are allowed  to organize themselves and speak out because they  may have  ideas which  are different from those  of the leaders .Individual citizens must also  learn to tolerate each other.

4.      Accountability

Democracy makes leaders accountable to the people .Leaders are responsible for their actions. They make decisions and work according to the will and wishes of the people.

5.      Transparency

A transparent government  holds  meetings and allows  citizens to attend and ask  questions .In  democracy, the press and the people  are able  to get information  about  what decisions are made, by whom  and why .An  accountable  government  makes  people  aware  of  what  is happening in the country .

6.      Regular free and fair election.

Electing officials to represent people in government regularly is a way of expressing the citizens’ will. Officials are chosen and removed from office in a free and fair manner. Corruption and threats to citizens during or before an election are against the principles of democracy.

7.      Economic freedom

Democratic societies allow people to have economic freedom. The government allows private ownership of goods and services. People are allowed to engage in any legal work. They are also allowed to join labour unions. The government lets people debate national issues.

8.      Control  of the abuse of power

Democratic societies try to prevent any elected officials or groups of people from misusing or abusing their power. The power can be abused through corruption or use of public funds for their own benefit, e.g. accepting money or gifts so as to provide services in an illegal manner.

9.      Bill of  Rights

A Bill of Right is a list of rights and freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country’s Constitution .The courts of law have the power to enforce these rights. Democracy emphasizes the value of every   human being. Example of rights  include freedom of expression, freedom of association ,freedom of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education.

10.  Multipartyism.

E very  democratic  country allows  the existence of  more  than  one political party .The  political parties must  participate  in elections and play  a  role  in government. A multiparty system  allows  the party  which wins  the general election to form the government .When multiparty  politics  prevail  in a state, they  make the government  constantly  concerned about serving  the people .The opposition  parties challenge  and  correct the government .

11.  The  rule of  law

The rule of law is the situation where all members of society, including the leaders, accept and respect the authority of the law. No one is above the law. All people are equal before the law. Everyone must obey the laws and be accountable if they abuse it. The rule of law insists that the law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced.      

12.  Accepting the results of elections.

Elections are one of the components of democracy. In any contest, there must be winners and losers. Sometimes, those  who lose  in an election think that  their  candidate is  the best and refuse to  accept  the results .Refusing the results is  against democratic principles .This  may result in violence, which  is also against democracy. To make people accept the results of elections, the elections must be free and fair.

Types of democracy.

    There are two types of democracy:  direct and indirect.

1.      Direct democracy or  participatory democracy

This is apolitical system where the people vote on government decisions. It is called ‘direct’ because the power of making decisions is exercised by the people directly, without representatives.

      All adult citizens participate in decision- making on matters brought for discussion .Every important issue is put before an assembly of all citizens for a vote.

      Direct democracy can only be practiced in countries with a small population.

Switzerland is the only country in the world which practices direct democracy.

Every Swiss citizen votes on national matters and can challenge laws passed as well as propose amendments to laws.

      In many countries, it is impossible for every citizen to take part directly in all governmental decision-making because of very large populations.

      We can observe some of the elements of direct democracy in our country e.g. in local governments, small communities, tribes, clans or families. In these groups, every adult is allowed to come together and vote on certain issues. This is direct democracy at the local level.

Features of direct democracy.

(a)   Societies have enough freedom to make their own decisions.

(b)   People  directly  contribute  to government decision s

(c)    All votes have equal weight.

(d)   All adult citizens have the right to vote on all national issues.

2.      Indirect or representative  democracy

This is a political system whereby people elect representatives instead of voting directly on most government decisions. Citizens elect people to serve in parliament and executive positions. These representatives convey the interests and desires of their constituents by participating in governmental processes

         Representation can also be in different groups in the community. Members of the community elect persons to represent them and give them power to decide on their behalf.

         In representative democracy, citizens participate indirectly by electing village councilors, members of parliament and the president.

         At the school level, students elect their representatives to the school government .For example; a class monitor may represent his or her class in the school government.

Features of indirect democracy

(a)   Elected leaders or representatives are removed through elections organized constitutionally and periodically. Tanzania conducts elections after every five years.

(b)   All adult citizens have the right to vote or be voted for in an election.

(c)    People have freedom of assembly, worship, press, opinion and association as long as they abide by the laws of the country.

(d)    The  elected body governs according  to the wishes  of the majority

(e)   There is competition among political parties.

Types of indirect democracy

a)      Parliamentary democracy

This is a type of indirect democracy whereby voters elect representatives to be members of parliament .Members of parliament in turn choose a person to head the Cabinet. That head of Cabinet is called a Prime Minister. The prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in parliament. He or she chooses Cabinet ministers from the Parliament.

The Prime Minister and the Cabinet remain in office as long as there is majority support in the parliament. The members of parliament have the power to force the prime Minister to resign through a vote of no confidence. If they vote against the prime Minister, then he or she must resign and a new Prime Minister is elected by parliament democracy

   (b)     Presidential democracy

This is a form of representative democracy whereby the parliament and Cabinet are independent organs. Voters elect representatives to a parliament. They also elect the head of the Cabinet that is the president. The president holds office for a fixed item. In a presidential democracy, the president does not directly control the parliament so the two can check each other’s power. This is called a system of checks and balances.

In  this type of democracy  the President may come from  one  political party  while  the majority members of parliament come  from  another political party .

Tanzania follows this system.

b)       Combined parliamentary and presidential democracy.

      This is the type of democracy whereby the president is elected by the people while the prime minister is elected by the members of parliament.

        An example of a country which has combined parliamentary and presidential democracy is France.

The implementation of democracy in Tanzania

Tanzania is a country which implements democracy in various ways, including the following.

1.      Political freedom

Tanzania who qualify to vote may stand for election. In addition, citizens attend community or civic meetings and are members of political parties.

2.      No  discrimination

There is no discrimination of people due to their race, religion, ethnic group or gender .We are all equal.

3.      Tolerance

The opposition parties are tolerated and protected. Citizens are also required to be tolerant of each other.

4.      Free and fair elections.

There are fair and free elections .Elections are held regularly, after every five years.

5.      Economic freedom

From 1985 to date, the government of Tanzania has allowed freedom of economy and private ownership. Individuals are allowed to own property and businesses. People are allowed to choose their own work and join labour unions.

6.      Multipartyism.

Multiparty politics was reintroduced in 1992.Since then, many political parties have been established which participate in different political affairs.

7.      Legal rights

In democratic elections, the losers respect the results .In case there is dissatisfaction, one may demand his or her rights through a court of law.

8.      Equality before the law.

In Tanzania, no one is above the law. People are equal before the law. If there is violation of any law, people are allowed to demand justice through a court of law.

9.      Rule of law

Tanzania controls abuse of power. The government has established organizations to facilitate the rule of law. Examples are the Human Rights and Good Governance Commission and the prevention of Corruption Bureau (PCB).These organizations help to protect people against abuse of power. Therefore, the rights and freedoms of the people are guaranteed

Weaknesses of democracy.

Democracy has shortcomings to individuals and the society as well. The following are some of the weaknesses of democracy.

1.      Unfairness

This can come about through the implementation of the majority’s decision and leaving out the minority’s decision. Sometimes, the minority‘s decisions are also good.

2.      Poor representation.

Delegation and representation are elements of democracy. Sometimes, those elected to represent others are incapable of dealing with technical issues .The result will be poor representation.

3.      Need for literacy

Some members of society are illiterate .They do not know their rights, especially those rights which are denied by their leaders. Illiterate people do not know the power limits of their leaders. Such people may elect rulers who are incapable under the umbrella of democracy. Those who are in power take advantage of the ignorance of these people to mistreat them.

4.      Time-consuming

In the democratic societies, much time is spent to reach decisions even though the matter in discussion may need a quick solution.

Non-democratic governments

These are forms of government which do not exercise democracy. The rulers exercise their power without limits.

            Dictatorship is the ruling system whereby all powers rest in the hands of a few people or one person.

            Dictatorship governments have similar characteristics but there are slight differences in the way they operate in different countries. The following are some of the forms of dictatorship.

1.      Autocracy is a type of dictatorship in which a single person has unlimited power. He or she can do whatever he or she wants. In  this  form of dictatorship, the  judiciary is not allowed to function  independently and  the people  do not  enjoy civic liberties .Political power  is  monopolised by one  person or a small  group. The rule of the elite is justified only on the basis of traditions, force or a coup. 

2.      Totalitarianism is a type of government in which all powers are in the hands of one political party which dominates every aspect of human life. Those who are in power believe that no citizen has any right to challenge their authority.

Leaders control power and all administrative apparatus. The services of secret forces and intelligence police are used to find out those who try to raise their voice of dissent from official views. Examples of dictators of this type were Benitto Mussolini of Italy and Adolf Hitler of Germany.

3.       Caesarism is government that is controlled by military or imperial dictatorship.

4.      Fascism is a government with strict and severe rules. It suppresses the opposition through terror and censorship.

     Common features of multiparty democracy

    Multiparty democracy is a political system in a county where many   political parties are        

    operating legally. Each political party has the aim of taking power through democratic election

    and forming the government.

      Apolitical party is a group of people legally organized and registered for the purposes of    

    forming a government.

           In order to have a multiparty democracy, more than one political party must participate in              

        Elections and play a role in government. Multiparty democracy allows an opposition party to  

        win the election. The following are features of multiparty democracy.

1.      Citizens express their political views openly. The national Constitution states the right to form opposition political parties and encourages the citizens to express their political view openly. The opposition parties act as a watchdog over the ruling party.

2.      Human rights are respected so citizens are free to express themselves. There is freedom of press, freedom of association, freedom of worship and the right to join political parties of one’s choice.

3.      Public accountability and transparency is promoted .Multiparty democracy is one way of checking the abuse of power in government.

4.      Multipartyism is tolerant. It tolerates groups and individuals views.

5.      There is a high level of citizen participation in political affairs. They can vote and be voted for.

6.      Citizens are  allowed to form pressure  groups or non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

7.      The actions of the state are kept constantly responsive to social and political needs.

Historical background of multiparty democracy in Tanzania.

Our country reintroduced multiparty democracy in 1992.This is not first time our country is experiencing this system of politics.

At the time of resisting colonial rule, Tanganyika had multiparty democracy.

The political parties that existed at that time were United Tanganyika Party (UTP), African National Congress (ANC), All Muslim National Union of Tanganyika (AMNUT) and Tanganyika African National Union (TANU).

It was the same in Zanzibar. Before her partial independence in 1963, the political parties in Zanzibar were Afro-Shiraz Party (ASP), Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP), Zanzibar and Pemba People‘s Party (ZPPP) and the short-lived UMMA Party.

The parties were well-organized, strong and very active in both Tanganyika and Zanzibar. Every political party was doing what was expected by its members.

The 1965 constitutional changes created a one party state in both Tanganyika and Zanzibar. In Tanganyika, TANU was the only political party while ASP was the only party in Zanzibar. From 1965to 1992, Tanzania did not have a multiparty system.

Now, we have the following registered political parties in Tanzania.

1.      Chama  cha Mapinduzi (CCM)

2.      Civic United  Front (CUF-Chama cha Wananchi)

3.      Chama cha  Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA )

4.      Tanzania  Labour Party (TLP)

5.      National Convention for Construction and Reform (NCCR –Mageuzi)

6.      United Democratic Party (UDP)

7.      Chama  cha Haki na Ustawi (CHAUSTA)

8.      Jahazi Asilia

9.      Progressive Party of  Tanzania (PPT-Maendeleo)

10.  Democratic party (DP)

11.  Tanzania  Democratic  Alliance (TADEA)

12.  Sauti ya Umma (SAU)

13.  National  League for  Democracy Party (NLDP)

14.  National Reconstruction Alliance (NRA)

15.  Demokrasia Makini

16.  Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD)

17.  Union for Multiparty  Democracy (UMD)

Participation of students in democratic activities

Participation in democratic activities is the right and duty of every one.Students’participation can make a difference in how democracy works in their country. Students’ participation in democracy may take many forms including.

1.      Standing for election, e.g. for school or club leadership positions.

2.      Voting for leaders or issues in school or club elections. Students who qualify should also participate in civic and national elections.

3.      Joining a political party, if one qualifies to do so.

4.      Taking part in the work of a political party.

5.      Staying informed about what is happening in Parliament.

6.      Participating in youth organizations in the community.

7.      Debating  matters relating to democracy

8.      Helping to educate the community on their  democratic rights, e.g. through skits and songs

9.      Attending community or civic meetings

10.  Expressing their opinions e.g.in their peer groups or schools.

6 Democratic elections

Meaning and indicators of democratic elections.

Election is the process of choosing a person by vote, especially for political position. During elections, citizens are given an opportunity to choose a person to lead them.

Democratic elections are elections where participants are treated equally, electoral laws are fair to all contestants and there is political tolerance. People are free to give their views, take part in campaigns, assemble and share ideas.

Sometimes, political parties and the government do not tolerate the political activities of others. In this situation, free and fair elections cannot be achieved

Indicators of democratic elections  

1.      Free and fair election  campaigns

The government allows freedom of expression, freedom of assembly and freedom of association .Election campaigns are a series of political meetings designed to win voters for a certain candidate, political party or proposal. In these meetings, candidates present their policies, promises and programmes.

In free and fair election campaigns, citizens are free to ask questions on issues that need elaboration from the contestants. This enables them to make the right choices in the election .Political parties should not disrupt each others’ campaigns and the government should allow opposition parties to hold campaigns freely.

2.      All political parties are given  equal opportunities

The political parties and their nominees must be heard equally. The mass media gives equal coverage to all candidates of different political parties.TV and radio stations air the views of candidates equally. The print media, e.g newspapers and journals, also publicize the policies of political parties. The government in power allows opposition parties to operate freely.

3.      Code of ethics for elections

This is an agreement between the National Electoral Commission (NEC), the government and political parties. The purpose of this agreement is to sustain fairness, mutual understanding and tolerance among stakeholders, and guarantee peace and tranquility throughout the electoral process. Three areas are addressed in the code of conduct .These are:-

(a)Ethics for political parties and candidates

The following are supposed to be done by political parties and candidates during the campaign.

(i)                 All should respect the right of other parties and candidates during the campaign.

(ii)               All should adhere to programmes laid out by the NEC and its agents for the coordination of political meetings.

(iii)             Public meetings should be conducted between 8:00a.m and 6:30p.m.

(iv)              Loudspeakers should only be used between 7:00p.m.

(v)                Campaign  material and publications should be vetted by the NEC (for president candidates)or returning officers (for  other candidates )

(vi)              Parties and presidential candidates should use the procedures and modalities laid out by the NEC when using the public media.

(vii)            Party leaders must make plans to educate and supervise supporters so that they do not disrupt peace.

(viii)          Parties and their supporters should respect the environment when posting or distributing materials.

(ix)              Campaign meetings should be peaceful and without religious, tribal, ethnic or sexual discrimination. They should be conducted in Swahili and  a translator used  where Swahili  is not understood.

(x)                Parties should not use religious sites to hold meetings or solicit religious leaders to campaign on their behalf.

(xi)              Meetings should be used to publicize policy and not to create hatred, confrontation or division amongst Tanzania.

Political parties, candidates and supporters should not do the following during campaigns.

i.                    People should not cause chaos or disorder at the meetings of others.

ii.                  Language which is abusive, defamatory or belittling, threatening, or that incites disorder or violence should not be used.

iii.                No weapons should be carried to public meetings

iv.                 No statues or caricatures intended to ridicule, revile or scandalize should be displayed  at public events

v.                   Loudspeakers are banned between 7:00p.m and 6.00a.m

vi.                 The media should not be used to defame others.

vii.               Campaign materials of others should not be defaced, removed or destroyed.

viii.             Nothing should be posted on private property without the express consent of the owners.

In regards to voting and the announcement of election results:

i.                    All shall cooperate at polling stations to facilitate voting and maintain tranquility.

ii.                  Party leaders must educate their voters to leave polling stations after voting to avoid crowding, violence or breach of peace.

iii.                Party agents, subject to NEC direction, may accompany ballot boxes to counting centers.

iv.                 All must adhere to and implement directives issued by NEC to respect the results. Complaints should be directed to the relevant authority in accordance with legal procedures.

v.                   No campaigning shall be undertaken on election day .Party partisan dress should not be worn.

vi.                 People should refrain from all acts that could cause chaos or commotion at polling stations or counting and addition centres.(b)The  Government of Tanzania

i.                    Should ensure equal opportunity to all stakeholders to engage in political activity.

ii.                  Must ensure peace and tranquility during elections and provide security for all public events.

iii.                All parties with presidential candidates should have equal opportunity to use the mass media.

iv.                 Should ensure that leaders and officials exercise their power within the legally defined limits.

v.                   Should accept and respect the decisions about results from the NEC and returning officers.

The following should not be done by the government:

i.                    Permitting leaders and officers to abuse their authority or resources for campaigning.

ii.                  Prohibiting or disrupting public events held in accordance with the coordinated campaign progamme.

iii.                Victimizing employees because of their party affiliation or ideology.

iv.                 Allowing security organs to oppress political parties, candidates or supporters.

v.                  Allowing security forces to use excessive force.

(c)The National Electoral Commission (NEC)

The NEC is responsible for planning, supervising and conducting elections that are free and fair, and should:

i.                    Ensure compliance with the Constitution and electoral law.

ii.                  Make timetables and notice available beforehand.

iii.                Provide civic education for voters.

iv.                 Provide adequate training for electoral staff.

v.                   Involve political parties at every stage of the electoral process.

vi.                 Issue timely regulations and guidelines.

vii.               Rebuke any acts that jeopardize the elections.

viii.             Coordinate the use of public media for presidential candidates and their political parties to provide equal opportunities for all.

ix.                 Conduct elections transparently and professionally. The NEC should  not do the following

i.                    Favour any party or candidate.

ii.                  Change programmes unilaterally

iii.                Delay declaration of results unnecessarily. Source: NEC2005: A Handbook of Tanzania Electoral Laws and Regulations, 2005.

4.      Frequency of elections or election  intervals

The general election of the President and members of parliament is conducted after every five years. In a democratic country, no one is allowed to conduct elections according to his or her own wishes.

Importance of democratic elections

Democracy allows people to vote. It is therefore the responsibility of every qualified citizen to vote .People often vote because they want to bring about change .Electing a different political party or candidate to office can change the type of government.

            The following are reasons why democratic elections are important.

1.      They enable people to choose officials in political parties, and the central government or local governments.

2.      Elections strengthen democracy in a country   as the leadership is changed peacefully.

3.      The country gets an acceptable government.

4.      Through elections, the most popular representatives and party are put in power.

5.      Through referendum, people vote for or against specific issues. This   helps to decide on important issues in the country.

6.      They guarantee continuous representation and accountability of elected leaders to the society.

How free and fair elections are ensured in Tanzania.

The following are some indicators of free and fair elections in Tanzania.

1.      Elections.

(a)   Elections in Tanzania are held after every five years as per the Constitution.

(b)   There are many political parties that compete in elections for different vacant seats in the local and central governments. All these parties are treated equally.

(c)    Every citizen has a right to vote if she or he qualifies.

(d)   Voting is done secretly. There is no one who is forced to vote for a candidate against his or her choice.

(e)   There are electoral campaigns in Tanzania. All contestants are given enough time to visit their areas of election. They publicize their policies and allow citizens to ask questions.

(f)     There is civic education for voters. This enables voters to be aware of their constitutional rights in voting.

(g)   There is political tolerance.

(h)   Results are respected. Those who have not won respect the results of the elections.

(i)     Election petitions are allowed. This is a means by which the election of a member of parliament or a councilor may be challenged in a court of law.

2.      Election procedures

In Tanzania, there is an electoral commission which is responsible for general elections. Its main duties are to:

(a)    Supervise and coordinate the registration of voters in presidential, parliamentary and civic elections in the United Republic of Tanzania.

(b)   Supervise and coordinate the conduct of the presidential and parliamentary elections.

(c)    Review the boundaries and demarcate the United Republic into various areas for the purposes of parliamentary elections.

(d)   Perform other function in accordance with the law.

3.      Conditions for candidates in general elections.

Candidates are citizens who contest a seat in the elections .The candidate must qualify as per the provisions of the national constitution.

Conditions for presidential candidates.

(a)   Be a citizen of the United Republic of Tanzania by birth.

(b)   Have  attained the age of 40years

(c)    Be a member of and a candidate nominated by a political party.

(d)   Be  qualified to be a member of parliament or a member  of  the house of representatives

(e)   Should not have been convicted by any court for the offence of evading tax.

(f)     Be nominated by 200 supporters who are registered voters from each of ten regins, two of which must be in Zanzibar.

Conditions for parliamentary candidates.

(a)   Be a citizen aged 21 years or above, and can read and write in Kiswahili and English.

(b)   Be a member of and sponsored by a political party.

(c)    Have not less than 25 sponsors who are registered as voters in the relevant constituency.

(d)   Make a statutory declaration that he or she has all the qualifications required for being a candidate.

(e)   Deposit TSH 50,000 with the National Electoral Commission.

(f)     Should not have been convicted by any court for the offence of evading tax.

Conditions for voters.

(a)    Be a citizen of Tanzania

(b)   Be registered as a voter

(c)    Be 18 years or above

(d)   Be  a person of sound mind

(e)   Not have been detained in lawful custody within the preceeding five years.

Spirit of tolerance

Before elections

Registration is the process of being identified as a voter. A voter’s card must be obtained before voting. The purpose is to make sure that no one votes twice and that each voter is eligible to vote. Tanzania introduced permanent voters’ registers in January, 2000.

Before voting the citizens register themselves in the voters; registers so as to be assured of voting on the voting day. In this process, citizens should allow all people qualified to register as voters in a given area to do so. They should not try to stop some people from registering for fear that the said people will not support their candidate.

             Campaigns are carried out as part of the initial election acivities.During this time candidates of different parties hold meetings to tell people about their party and convince people  to vote for them. This is one of the most charged stages of the election period. Citizens should accept that people hold different opinions and ideas.

They should not try force their ideas and opinions on others as this might lead to conflict. In case they disagree with the opinions on others as this might lead to conflict. In case they disagree with the opinions and ideas of others, then they should express this peacefully.

Polling day

Polling day is the day on which people vote in an election .The following takes place on polling day.

(a)   Once voters arrive at the polling station, they present their voters’ cards. Their names are checked in the voters’ register.

(b)   Voters are given the ballot paper on which they cast their votes. They go into the voting booth .This is the place where they make their mark on the ballot paper. Voters carefully read the ballot paper and place a mark (usually          ) next to the party or candidate for whom they  wish  to vote  for.

(c)    All votes are secret in the voting booth.

There is no one allowed to see where the voter marks the ballot paper.

(d)   Voters place the folded ballot papers in to the sealed ballot boxes.

(e)   The voters’ fingers are marked with a dye by an official.

This is to make sure that each person votes only once. The voters show tolerance by obeying the orders and procedures of voting. They do not quarrel with each other even if they support different political parties or candidates. They do not, in any way try to stop any genuine voter from voting.

Vote counting

When voting is over at the polling stations, counting of votes begins. A designated official breaks the seal of the ballot box and opens the box in front of political parties’ agents and neutral monitors. Sometimes international monitors (observers) are present .Each ballot paper is examined and counted by a ballot clerk with the monitors watching and checking on the counting. The spoilt ballot papers are kept aside.

  Tolerance is shown during this stage when the monitors and agents do not unnecessarily disrupt the counting process. As long as the process is transparent, the officials should be allowed to carry out the counting without disruptions. In case of a dispute, this should be solved amicable without using force or violence.

Declaration of the results.

The results are announced on the spot. Party agents sign special result forms to confirm they have witnessed the vote counting process and accept the result. A copy of the results is posted outside the polling station. This is done to ensure transparency and avoid the possibility of election rigging. All results from the polling stations in a constituency are worked on by the area returning officer. He or she tallies them and announces the winner.

              Results for presidential elections are announced by the chairperson of the National Electoral Commission

In the spirit of tolerance, defeated candidates should accept the results. Their supporters too, should accept the results. They should not engage in any form of violence against the winner and his or her supporters. The winners should also be humble in their win and avoid angering those who have lost.

By -elections

These are elections which may be held to fill parliamentary or councilor’s seats which become vacant between general elections. By-elections are conducted when any of the following takes place.

(a)   A member of parliament or councilor dies

(b)   A member of parliament or councilor  resigns

(c)    Parliament is dissolved before the end of its lifetime

(d)   A member of parliament fails to discharge his or her duties.

      

7GENDER

Meaning of gender

Gender refers to the fact of being male or female. In this context, it refers to the social relationship between men and women. It is concerned with the roles and responsibilities of men and women in our families, communities and country.

Gender concepts

There are various concepts which are used in relation to the concept of gender. It is important to know how they interrelate or differ in the whole process of dealing with gender issues. These concepts are.

(a). Gender equality

Gender equality is  the exercise of fairness and justice  to all sexes without  discrimination or considering whether one is born male or female. It is based on the  belief that all people are equal and should therefore have equal access to  opportunities and resources. It is practiced in giving equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities to women and men

(b) Gender equity

Gender equity is based on the principle that measures should be taken to bridge  the  inequality between men and women. It is about giving priority to women in order to reduce the imbalance that already exists.

(c) Gender roles

A role is a duty or importance of a person or a group in a particular activity or area of life. Gender roles are, therefore, duties of a particular sex (male or female) as determined by a society

Gender roles can be divided into reproductive and productive roles

(a)   Reproductive roles are the activities that include child-bearing and other domestic-related tasks. Some societies do not value reproductive roles because they have no economic return. However, these roles are very important for social and family stability.

(b)   Productive roles are the activities that men and women engage in to earn a living. These are valued in many societies because they contribute directly to the economy

(d) Gender stereotyping

To  stereotype is to have  a fixed idea about a community, group or person, but  which  is usually not true in reality .Gender stereotyping is  whereby opinions are formed  about what  men and women are capable  of doing .It reflects people’s attitudes and  practices on gender division  of  labour. For example, some people believe that boys are more capable in science subjects than girls. This is gender stereotyping

(e)   Gender stereotyping

Gender discrimination is a situation where one sex (male or female) is treated either better or worse than the other. Some traditions and customs discriminate against women and favour men. Women and girls are discriminated right from the family level. For example, some people do not believe that girls should go to school. As a result, there are differences in socio-economic and development activates.

(f)     Gender analysis

Gender analysis is a systematic effort to identify and understand the roles of women and men within a given society. It involves collection of gender-specific information and data from the community. This analysis is the first step towards making the gender-sensitive planning needed for promoting gender equality in the society.

(g)   Gender mainstreaming

This is the taking into consideration gender issues in development activities at all levels, for example, making laws, policies and programmes. It helps women and men to benefit equally from development projects.

(h)   Gender  blindness

It is the inability to know that there are different gender roles, gender responsibilities and a gender-based hierarchy .This leads to the failure to realize that policies, programmes and projects can have a different impact on men and women.

(i)     Gender balance.

This is majorly a human resource concept. It is about ensuring that men and women participate equally at their work places.

Gender issues in the society

Gender issues  are topics which  arise for discussion because  there is inequality  among the  two sexes(male and  female)in  a society. The following are some of the gender issues in the society

1.      Bride price

2.      Wife inheritance

3.      Female genital mutilation

4.      Male dominance in the family community and society

5.      Unequal distribution of domestic or economic tasks between men and women.

6.      Sexual harassment.

Gender issues occur due to contacts with other societies, religions and types of education.

Negative socio-cultural practices.

Culture refers to the totality of society’s way of life. It includes the customs, art, beliefs and social organization of a particular group of people .In different societies, there are socio-cultural practices that hinder equal participation between men and women.

1.      Wife inheritance

To inherit means to receive something such as a house, car, farm or money from someone when he or she dies.

     Some societies in Tanzania regard women as property that can be inherited. In these societies, when a woman’s husband dies, another man who is a member of her husband’s family can inherit her.

This practice de-humanizes women and contributes to the spread of diseases such as HIV and AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases.

2.      Female genital mutilation

Female genital mutilation is the removal of the outer part of the sexual organs of a woman. It is also called female circumcision. Some communities in Tanzania still practice female circumcision. It is taken as part of the initiation process in which girls are trained to become responsible women. ,

Female circumcision is a negative practice because:

( i)  It can cause women to develop complications when giving birth.

(ii) The tools which are used for circumcision are not hygienic and are used on many

     people.Hence, the spread of HIV and AIDS is very likely.

(iii) Bleeding after circumcision  can lead to anaemia or even  death.

(iv) Many girls drop out of school after the initiation because they consider themselves

           Mature women.

3.      Early marriage

Early marriage is the marriage of people who have not yet reached the legal age for such a union. In Tanzania, this age is 18years.

Early marriage leads to:

(j)     Dropping out from school, hence increasing illiteracy in the society.

(ii) Greater risk of death because the reproductive organs of the young mother are still  

       immature.

(iii) Higher possibility of divorce and family instability as the couple has little knowledge  on family affairs.

4.      Discrimination against women.

This is a situation whereby women are treated badly compared to men. This is because of the traditions and customs that exist in some Tanzania communities. For example, men are the heads of families and are also decision –makers. Women have no rights to land, property, education and employment opportunities.

            Socio-cultural practices which discriminate against women should be abolished. This is because if women are given a chance, they can contribute a lot to the family, community and society. They are as capable as men in any profession necessary for national development.

5.      Cruelty/violence against women

Some Tanzania communities have traditions and customs which give men power to oppress women. Domestic violence is becoming a major problem in many families.

Some husbands beat their wives because their traditions and customs encourage this practice. Women are forced to endure this mistreatment because they are dependent on their husbands.

6.      Regarding women as sex objects.

Some societies in Tanzania regard women as sex objects. A woman has to remain at home so as to refresh a man when he comes from work. She is not allowed to work outside the home. These societies do not allow girls to get higher education, with the belief that it is a waste time and money because girls are married off to serve their husbands.

Corrective measures against negative socio-cultural practices

Though it is very important  for a nation to maintain its culture,  there are some negative  socio-cultural  practices which  should be abandoned in order to  bring  equality between men and women  in the society.

            Therefore, corrective measures should be taken jointly by the government, community, family, non- governmental organizations and individual citizens on the following aspects:

1.      Empowerment of women: women should be given a chance to make decisions and exercise their rights.

2.      Mass education: People should be educated about the dangers of negative socio-cultural practices such as early marriage and female genital mutilation.

This will make people aware of the harm caused by these practices

3.      Enhancing the existing laws on women’s rights: The government should enhance these laws to enable women to participate in the same socio-economic activities as men. For example, women should be able to own and inherit properties like land, houses and business so as to have a strong economic base.

4.      Use of mass media: Radio, television and newspapers can be used to educate and give people information concerning negative cultural practices and their effects in the society.

5.      Adjust the school curriculum:  Students should be made to understand the dangers of negative cultural practices. They should be taught the effects these practices have on the society and also what would be a better way of doing things.

6.      Special consideration should be given to women in education and politics as they have been lagging behind for a long time. They should be given special seats in parliament and given special provisions in admission for higher education.